The Need for Wireless Standards and Protocols Assignment

The Need for Wireless Standards and Protocols - Assignment Example The first international standard is ISO/IEC 18000-7. This standard came up after a series of consultations between the international Standard Organization and a number of stakeholders in the wireless technology, where they found it fit to develop this standard in regulating the wireless communication industry (Thomas, 2009). The stakeholders agreed with International Standard Organization proposal and formed a working group called DASH7 Alliance. DASH7 Alliance together with experts from International Standards Organization developed DASH7 standard which have a significant impact on wireless communication technologies. The DASH7 standard was accepted by international standard organization technical committee and came into effect in 2004. The DASH7 standard has a number of requirements on the corporate sector, concerning the wireless technology. It requires that the corporate sector need to transmit data at a frequency of 433MHz. The standard also requires the corporate sector to use similar electronic gadgets of data exchange to eliminate difficulties of compatibility and encourage easy communication (Thomas, 2009). The standard further requires that all organizations should maintain similar frequency accuracy of 433MHz as a standard way of coding data. This makes decoding easy and encourage use of chips that are similar and easy to operate. The standard also required use of data communication devices that have low modulation and low power consumption. These requirement brought a lot of impacts to the corporate sector in many ways. The standard made the automation of the corporate sector buildings possible. The DASH7 network, with its new frequency of 433MHz, was able to penetrate walls and other impediments that were serving as barriers to automation of buildings. With new frequency, the networks needed less installations than what the previous wireless networks required in making automation of buildings. This frequency of 433MHz made it possible to transmit d ata to smartcards, tickets, and watches in order to establish their location (Norair, 2009). The DASH7 standards pulled the Wi-Fi and Bluetooth out of the market since these standards advocated for use of low power consumption. This made it impossible for these devices to be powered by such low voltages. The DASH7 standard also led to the manufacture of other devices that used very little power. The use of low power made it possible for devices such as watch and smartcard to be automated since they could be tracked from a distance. DASH7 also enabled the development of electric billboards that were used in advertising corporate products. This technology, therefore, boosted e-commerce and enabled companies to make more profits due to low cost of advertisement. The DASH7 technology also led to development of gadgets that utilize the frequency of 433MHz and is commonly used to monitor pressure in car tires (MacManus, 2010). Another gadget called TPMS provides the driver with accurate t ire pressure readings. This enables drivers to save fuel, reduce tire tear and wear, and ensure the overall safety of motorists. The DASH7 technology products are also being used in the management of supply chain. Since DASH7 wireless network has high coverage due to its low frequency of 433 MHz, it is being used in the tracking of maritime vessels, cars, and containers. This is allowing businesses to have control over their assets and, therefore, businesses can be assured of more profit. The use of DASH7

The Power Asymmetry In Qualitative Research Interviews English Language Essay

The Power Asymmetry In Qualitative Research Interviews English Language Essay The books in The Sage Qualitative Research Kit have been written with the needs of many different types of readers in mind. As such, the Kit and the individual books will be of use to a wide variety of users: Practitioners of various research, University teachers and Undergraduate and graduate students. Each book of the Kit has been written by a distinguished author with extensive experience in their field and in the practice with methods they write about. Doing interviews addresses the theoretical, epistemological, ethical and practical issues of interviewing people about specific issues or their life story. There are two other books about interviewing, they approach the subject in a much more detailed and focuses way for the specific method. Interviews are one of the major approaches in collecting data in qualitative research. There are variety ways of how to do interviews and what to do after the interview has been done. Doing interviews comes with specific needs of increasing the interview quality in general and its validity in particular and finally of reporting what was said and how it was analyzed. 1. Introduction to interview research Three interview sequences Conversation is a basic mode of human interaction. Through conversations we get to know other people, get to learn about their experiences, feelings and hopes and the world they live in. In an interview it is the same, except the researcher asks and listens to the people. The research interview is an interview where knowledge is constructed in the interaction between in the interviewer and the interviewee. Trough various sequences the writer is explaining that there are three forms of interviewing. A rather simple form of straightforward questioning contrast with the reciprocity of everyday conversations. The interviewer is in a power position and sets the stage by determining the topic of the interchange; it is the interviewer who asks and the interviewee who answers. The qualitative interview is a key venue for exploring the ways in which subjects experience and understand their world. Interview research in history and in the social sciences The term interview is of recent origin; it came into use in the seventeenth century. An interview is literally an inter-view. An interchange of views between two persons conversing about a theme of common interest. Systematic literature on research interviewing is a new phenomenon of the last few decades. Qualitative interviews have, previously been extensively employed in the social sciences. With education and health sciences, the interview has become a common research method in the last few decades. Quality methods, ranging form participant observation over interview to discourse analysis, have since the 1980s become key methods of social research. Technical, epistemological and cultural reasons may be suggested for the growing use of qualitative research interviews. The availability of small portable tape records in the 1950s made the exact recording of interviews easy. In the 1980s, computer programs facilitated the qualitative analyses of transcribed interviews. Interviews have also become part of the common culture. Methodological and ethical issues The interview is a conversation that has a structure and a purpose determined by the one part, the interviewer. The qualitative research interview is a construction site for knowledge. A semi-structures life-world interview will be in focus of the book. It is defined as an interview with the purpose of obtaining descriptions of the life world of the interviewee with respect to interpreting the meaning of the describes phenomena. To have an interview a good preparation will be needed. The interview is a powerful method of producing knowledge of the human situation. 2. Epistemological issues of interviewing Mode of understanding in a qualitative research interview A semi -structured life-world interview attempts to understand themes of the lived daily world for the subjects own perspectives. It comes close to an everyday conversation but as a professional interview it has a purpose and it involves a specific approach and technique. The interview is a uniquely sensitive and powerful method for capturing the experiences and lived meanings of the subjects everyday world and it allow the subject tot convoy their situation from their own perspective and in their own words. An interview seeks to understand the meaning of central themes of the subjects lived world. It is necessary to listen to the explicit description and to the meaning expressed, as well as to what is said between the lines. In qualitative interviews, precision in description and stringency in meaning interpretation correspond to exactness in quantitative. The qualitative interviewer encourage the subject tot describe as precisely as possible what they experience and feel. The qualitative interview attempts to obtain descriptions that are as comprehensive and presupposition less as possible of important themes of the interviewees life world. The interviewer should be curious, sensitive to what is said, as well as to what is not said, and critical. The focus of the interview is on particular themes: it is neither strictly structures with standard questions, nor entirely non-directive. The task of the interviewer is to clarify, as far as possible, whether the ambiguities and contradictory statements are due to a failure of communication in the interview situation. Power asymmetry in qualitative research interviews The research interview is a specific professional conversation with a clear power asymmetry between the researcher and the subject: The interview entails an asymmetrical power relation; The interview is a one-way dialogue; The interview is an instrumental dialogue; The interview may be a manipulative dialogue; The interviewer had a monopoly of interpretation; Counter-control, subjects may hold information; Exceptions. Research interviews between a philosophical dialogue and a therapeutic interview The qualitative research interview has affinities to philosophical dialogues as well as to therapeutic interviews, but follows neither the relentless intellectual reasoning of the former nor the close personal interaction of the latter. Professional interviews, such as a therapeutic interview, a job interview or a legal interrogation, are characterized by a focus on the dynamics of interaction between interviewer and interviewee, a methodological awareness of question forms and a critical attention to what is said. The therapeutic sequence indicates the possibilities for research interviewers to learn from the techniques developed within the therapeutic profession, while also demonstrating differences between therapeutic and research interviews. The interviewer as a miner or as a traveler Two contrasting metaphors of the interviewer, as a miner or as a traveler, may illustrate the different epistemological conceptions of interviewing as a process of knowledge collection or as a process of knowledge construction, respectively. In a miner metaphor, knowledge is understood as buried metal and the interviewer is a miner who unearths the valuable metal. The knowledge is waiting in the subjects interior to be uncovered, uncontaminated by the miner. An alternative traveler metaphor understands the interviewer as a traveler on a journey to a distant country that leads to a table to be told upon returning home. The interview traveler walks along with the local inhabitants, asks questions and encourages them tot tell their own stories of their lived world. Epistemological conceptions of interview knowledge The elimination of the hum factor in research, key aspects of the mode of understanding in qualitative research interviews appear as methodological sources of error, to a philosophy of sciences. In a postmodern approach the qualitative research interview appears as a construction site of knowledge. The knowledge generated by interviews is in line with key features of a postmodern conception of knowledge, such as the conversational, the narrative, the linguistic, the contextual and interrelational nature of knowledge. With a decline of modern universal system of knowledge, the local, manifold and changing language contexts come into prominence. In a postmodern epistemology the certainty of our knowledge is less a matter of interaction with a non-human reality than a matter of conversation between persons. 3. Ethical issues of interviewing Interviewing as a moral inquiry An interview inquiry is a moral enterprise. Moral issues concern the means as well as the ends of interviews. The human interaction in the interview affects the interviewees and the knowledge produces by an interview inquiry affects our understanding of the human condition. Consequently, interview research is saturated with moral and ethical issues. Ethical issues throughout an interview inquiry Ethical issues go through the entire process of an interview investigation, and potential ethical concerns should be taken into consideration form the very start of an investigation and up to the final report. Ethical guidelines Professional ethical codes serve as contexts for reflection on the specific ethical decisions throughout an interview inquiry. Figure 1 outlines issues raised by these ethical guidelines in the form of questions, which interviewers may ask them before embarking on an interview journey. Figure 1. Informed consent entails informing the research about the overall purpose of the investigation and the main feature of the design, as well as of possible risks and benefits from participation in the research project. This raises the issue of how informed consent can be handled in exploratory interview studies, where the investigators themselves will have little advance knowledge of how the interview will proceed. The interviewees should always be informed about the purpose and the procedure of the interview. Confidentiality in research implies that private data identifying the subject will not be reported, otherwise the subject need to agree on the release of identifiable information. In extreme cases, protecting confidentiality can raise serious legal problems. The consequences of an interview study need to be addressed with respect to possible harm to the subjects as well as to the expected benefits of participating in the study. The ethical principle of beneficence means that the risk of harm to a subject should be the least possible. The researcher as a person is critical for the quality of the scientific knowledge and for the soundness of ethical decisions in an interview inquiry. Moral research behavior involves more than ethical knowledge and cognitive choices. The integrity of the researcher, his or her knowledge, experience, honesty and fairness, is the decisive factor. 4. Planning an interview study Seven stages of an interview inquiry No standard procedures or rules exits for conducting a research interview or an entire interview investigation. There are standard choices of methods at the different stages of an interview investigation. The quality of an interview study to a large extent rests on the craftsmanship of the researcher. The term unstandardized pertains to the interview situation, but an entire interview investigation had often tended to be a rather standardized affair, going through five emotional phases of hardships. Anti-positivist enthusiasm phase; The interview-quoting phase; The working phase of silence; The aggressive phase of silence; The final phase of exhaustion. These descriptions are based upon observation of colleagues and students undertaking interview projects. The seven stage of an interview inquiry are: Thematizing Designing Interviewing Transcribing Analyzing Verifying Reporting Through these stages an interview study will be developed and ends with the reporting. The emotional dynamics of an interview study are related tot these seven stages. Thematizing an interview study Thematizing refers to the formulation of research questions and a theoretical clarification of the theme investigated. The key questions when planning an interview investigation concern the why, what and how of the interview. Thematizing an interview study involves clarifying the purpose of the study, the why question. Interviews can have explorative or hypothesis-testing purposes. An exploratory interview is usually open with little pre-planned structure. Interviews that test hypotheses tend to be more structured. Interviews can also being used to inductively develop an empirically grounded theory, or as background material for further practical and theoretical studies. The thematic understanding of the topic if the study, the what, will further provides a ground for the how of the study: the many decisions on method that must be made on the way. The thematic focus of a project influences what aspects of subject matter the questions centre upon, and which aspects remain in the background. Familiarly with the local situation may also sensitize tot local ethic-political issues of the community, which need to be taken into account when interviewing and reporting the interviews. Designing an interview study Designing an interview study involves planning the procedures and techniques, the how of the study. The temporal dimension of an interview investigation should be kept in mind from the first thematizing to the final reporting stage, taking into account the interdependence of the seven stages. Overview, interdependence, push forward, spiraling backwards, keep the end point in sight, getting wiser and work-journal are all key factors of an interview inquiry. The number of subjects to interview necessary depends on the purpose of a study. In common interviews, the amount of interviews trends to be around 15. This number may be due to a combination of the time and resources available for the investigation and a law of diminishing returns. The method may be understood in a broad sense, like the way to the goal. A method is a set of rules, which can be used in a mechanical way to realize a given aim. Within such a formal rule conception of method, the qualitative research interview, where knowledge is produced trough the personal interaction between interviewer and interviewee, is clearly not a scientific method. Interviewing may be regarded less as a method following explicit rules than pragmatically as a craft, where the quality of knowledge produced by the interview rests upon the subject matter knowledge and the craftsmanship of the interviewer. Learning to interview is to arrive at a transparency of the techniques and tools. 5. Conducting an interview Setting the interview stage The setting of the interview stage should encourage the interviewees to describe their points of view on the topic. The first minutes of an interview are decisive. The interview should be introduced by a briefing in which the interviewer is defines the situation for the subject, briefly tells about the purpose of the interview, the use of a tape recorder and ask if the subjects has any questions before starting the interview. The initial briefing should be followed up by a debriefing after the interview. Scripting the interview An interview guide is a script that structures the course of the interview more or less tightly. The guide may merely contain some topics to be covered or it can be a detailed sequence of carefully worded questions. Interviews differ in their openness of purpose; the interviewer can explain the purpose and pose direct questions from the start, or can adopt a roundabout approach, with indirect questions, and reveal the purpose only when the interview is over. Thematically the questions relate to the what of an interview, to the theoretical conceptions of the research topic, and to the subsequent analysis of the interview. Dynamically the questions pertain tot the how of an interview; they should promote a positive interaction, keep the flow of the conversation going, and stimulate the subjects to talk about their experiences and feelings. The interviewer should also try to keep in mind the later analysis, verification and reporting to the interviews. Interviewers who know what they are asking about and why they are asking, will attempt to clarify the meanings relevant to the project during the interview. Active listing, the interviews ability to listen actively to what the interviewee says, is as important as the specific mastery of questioning techniques. That is why researcher questions need to translated to interviewer questions, figure 2 Figure 2 6. Interview variations Interview subjects Different issues will raise by different populations when the focus is on cross-cultural interviews, interviews with men, women and with children. In a cross-cultural interview it is difficult to become aware of the multitude of cultural factors that affect the relationship between interviewer and interviewee. In a foreign culture an interviewers needs time to establish a familiarity with the new culture and learn some of the many verbal and non-verbal factors where interviewer in a foreign culture may go amiss. Also with children the approach for an interview needs to be different. Interview forms A variety of research forms, useful for different purpose, exist. With the broad variety of interview forms and subjects it becomes understandable that there are no general standard procedures and rules for research interview. There is no correct or ideal interview form. Qualitative interviews do not only focus on the interviewees own perspectives and meanings. Obtaining valid factual information may be crucial in many interviews. In other situates, when interviewing for the oral history of a community, the focus will be less on the storytellers own perspective upon the events recounted, than on his or her stories as venues to reliable information about a collective past. Some experiments may serve interviewers as a reminder to be extremely careful in wording their questions when interviewing for factual information. Confrontational interviews though we did not seek to impose our ideas on those with whom we talked, †¦we did attempt to uncover assumptions, to make explicit what the person we were talking to might have left implicit (Bellah et al., 1985, p 304) In addition to a prevalent empathetic and consensual interview form, the more active confrontational and agonistic styles of interviewing may also produce valuable knowledge. 7. Interview quality Interview qualifications The interviewer is the key research instrument of an interview inquiry. A good interviewer knows the topic of the interview, masters conversational skills and is proficient in language, with an ear for his or her subjects linguistic style. The interviewer must continually make on-the-spot decisions about what to ask and how; which aspects of subjects answer to follow up, and which not, which answers to comment and interpret, and which not. The interviewer should have a sense for good stories and be able to assist the subjects in the unfolding of their narratives. Leading questions It is a well-documented finding that a slight rewording of a question in a questionnaire or in the interrogation of eyewitness may influence the answer. Politicians are well experienced in warding off leading questions form reporters; but if leading questions are inadvertently posed to subjects who are easily suggestible, such as small children, the validity of their answers may be jeopardized. In contrast to common opinion, the qualitative research interview is particularly well suited for employing leading questions to repeatedly check the reliability of the interviewees answers, as well as to verify the interviewers interpretations. The task in an interview is not to avoid leading research questions, but to recognize the primacy of the question and attempt to make the orienting questions explicit, thereby providing the reader with the possibility of evaluating their influence on the research findings and of assessing the validity of the findings. There are no unequivocal quality criteria for research interviews. A good interview rests upon the craftsmanship of the researcher, which goes beyond a mastery of questioning techniques to encompass knowledge of the research topic, sensitivity to the social relation of interviewer ad subject, and an awareness of epistemological and ethical aspects of research interviewing. 8. Transcribing interviews Oral and written language Transcription is an interpretative process, where the differences between oral speech and written texts give rise to a series of practical and principal issues. A transcript is a translation from one narrative mode, oral discourse, into another narrative mode, written discourse. The quality of interview transcriptions had always been a neglected issue. Transcribing interviews Transcribing the interviews from an oral to a written mode structures the interview conversations in a form amenable to closer analysis, and is in itself an initial analysis. The reliability and validity of transcriptions are generally neglected. If these two issues are addressed, the interpretative and constructive nature of transcription will appear. Computer tools for interview analysis Once the interviews have been transcribed, they become available for structuring and analysis by a variety of computer programs. The computer programs allow for such operations as writing memo, writing reflections on the interviews for late analysis, coding, searching for key words, doing words counts, and making graphic displays. No valid transcription of an oral account exists, but a variety of forms of transcribing, which will be valid for different uses of the transcripts. 9. Analyzing interviews Integrating interview analysis in an interview inquiry The question How shall I find a method to analyze the 1000 pages of interview transcripts I have collected? is a question which is too late en the work will be too much. The method of analysis should not only be given thought in advance of the interviewing, but may also, to varying degrees, be built into the interview situation itself. Modes of analysis No standard method exists, to arrive at essential meanings and deeper implications of what is said in an interview. The techniques of analysis are tools, useful for some purpose, relevant for some types of interviews, and suited for some researchers. But it depends on each interview itself. Interview analyses focusing on meaning Meaning and language are interwoven; in the practice of interview analysis the focus on meaning versus linguistic form does imply rather different techniques. Coding and categorizing were early approaches to the analysis of texts in the social sciences, which make it easy to transcribe the interview. Coding involves attaching one or more keywords to a text segment in order to permit later identification of a statement, whereas categorization entails a more systematic conceptualization of a statement, opening for quantification. Interpretation of texts is established by a hermeneutical circle, where the meaning of a text is established through a process in which the meanings of the separate passages are determined by the global meaning of the text as it is anticipated. Re-reading of the single passages may again change the first anticipated global meaning of the text, which again alters the meaning of the single passages. Interview analyses focusing on language The medium, or the material, with which interviewers work is language. The interview process occurs through speech, and the interview products are presented in words. During the last few decades social science researchers have started to use linguistic tools. Linguistic analysis, narrative analysis, conversation analysis, discourse analysis and deconstruction. Interview analysis as bricolage Many analyses of interviews are conducted without following any specific analytic method. The researchers may then freely change between different techniques and approaches. Bricolage refers to mixed technical discourses where the interpreter moves freely between different analytic techniques. In contrast to systematic analytic modes such as categorization and conversation analysis, bricolage implies a free interplay of techniques during the analysis. 10. Validation and generalization of interview knowledge Objectivity of interview knowledge. Issues of reliably and validity go beyond technical or conceptual concerns and raise epistemological questions of objectivity of knowledge and the nature of interview research. Interview analyses can be objective in the sense of intersubjective agreement, such as when a high degree of intersubjective reliability is documented by coding interview in quantifiable categories. Objective may also mean reflecting the nature of the object researched, letting the object speak, being adequate to the object investigated expressing, the real nature of the studied. Contrary to common opinion, knowledge produced in interviews need not be subjective, but may, be an objective method with respect to key meanings of objectivity. Reliability and validity of interview knowledge Reliability pertains to the consistency and trustworthiness of research findings; it is often treated in relation to the issue of whether a finding is reproducible at other times and by other researcher. Validity refers in ordinary language to the truth, the correctness and the strength of a statement. A valid argument is sound, well grounded, justifiable, strong and convincing. Validity as quality of craftsmanship Validation rests on the quality of the researchers craftsmanship throughout an investigation, continually checking, questioning and theoretically interpreting the findings. Validations do not belong to a separate stage of an investigation, but permeates the entire research process. Validity is ascertained by examining the sources of invalidity. The stronger the falsification attempts a knowledge proposition has survived, the stronger and more valid is the knowledge. Communicative and pragmatic validity When a modern belief in knowledge as a mirror of reality recedes to a social construction of social reality, communicative and pragmatic forms of validation come to the foreground. Communicative validity involves testing the validity of knowledge claims in a conversation. A Communicative validation of interview findings raises specific questions about the how, why and who of communication. Pragmatic validation relates to the users responses to an interpretation, and in a strong for it concerns the issue of whether interventions based on the researchers knowledge may instigate actual changes in behavior. Pragmatic validation is verification in the literal sense, to make true; justification is replaced by application. Analytical generalization rests upon rich contextual descriptions. It includes the researchers argumentation for the transferability of the interview findings to other subjects and situations, as well as the readers generalizations form a report. 11. Reporting interview knowledge Contrasting audiences for interview reports. When writing a report for an interview study it may be useful to be aware of different requirements within local social science communities. In common interview reports the link between the original conversations and the conclusions reported may be thin or missing. The interested reader will not find any, or only come across some vague scattered descriptions of how the interview knowledge was produced. Working towards the final report from the start of an interview study may contribute to a readable report of methodologically well-substantiated, interesting findings. Presenting interview findings with a quote, three guidelines for editing are suggested: The quotes should be contextualized; Interview quotes should be rendered in a readable style; Interview quotes should preferably be loyal to the habitual language of an interviewee. For communicative validation and analytical generalization, readers need rich contextual information about the interview findings in order to validate and generalize the results. 12. Enhancing interview quality Learning the craft of interviewing A book about interviewing involves a paradox of presenting explicit and general guidelines for a craft, which consist of practical skills and personal know-how that often remains tacit and depends on given situation. It can not be predicted which an interview journey goes. If people research interviewing by themselves, they will discovered the theory about interviewing and transcription themselves and not through a book. Starting to learn interviewing by listening to tapes will sensitize novice interviewers to the oral medium of the interview craft. Learning interviewing by transcribing interviews promotes a discovery learning where , through their own practice, newcomers tot the trade discovery techniques and dilemmas is transferring live conversations to written texts. There are three options to learn about interviewing: Learn interviewing by witness others interviewing; Learn interviewing by practicing interviewing; Learn interviewing in a community of interview researchers. The road to mastery of interviewing through a transcribing task, an interview practicum, or ideally a research apprenticeship, may appear as too cumbersome and time-consuming to some students. But it is most important to be well prepared. The adequate knowledge of the nature of interview conversations is suggested by: A pragmatic approach involves a move from philosophical legitimation to the practical effects of knowledge. Rather than seeking universal knowledge, the emphasis is on situated knowledge. What matters is not arriving at context-independent general knowledge, but producing well-described situated knowledge from the interviews. Interview knowledge is not collected, but produced between interviewer and interviewee, and the meanings constructed in their interaction are again restructured throughout the later stages of an interview inquiry. In order to reach a professional level comparable to quantitative analysis today, qualitative social research needs to move beyond a linguistic illiteracy towards a professional mastery of the linguistic medium of the interview craft. We live in a conversational world. The relevance of conversations in social science goes beyond the use of interview conversations as an additional empirical method. It concludes conversations among researchers, and the public, about the truth and value of the knowledge produced in interview conversations about a conversational world. Conclusion Doing interviews by Stein Kvale is a book which has two kinds of different input. There is the theoretical background and the practica

Shark Conservation Essay -- Sharks Sea Life Animals Essays

Shark Conservation Abstract Arising over 350 million years ago, the shark species has been labeled as a human devourer. Now, with the increase in human population, the demand for shark meat, fins, and cartilage are at an all time high; therefore, the existence of the shark is becoming a concern (Budker 1971). Individuals are conditioned to think of sharks as a negative aspect to the environment, which is prolonging the effort to save shark species from becoming extinct. With that in mind, some private as well as national organizations have accepted the challenge of educating and informing people about the existence of the shark specie and its importance to the sea. Introduction Portrayed as the beast of the sea, the shark species is a cold blooded animal that shows great diversity in size. The largest of the sharks measure up to 13.7 m, while the smallest of the species range from 22-to-25 cm (Ellis 1976). Typically, these creatures of the sea have a fusiform body, that is composed of cartilage, which is capable of reducing drag and the amount of energy needed to swim (Ellis 1976). Their countershade coloration allows the species to blend in with both the dark depths and the light surfaces of the sea (Ellis 1976). These beautiful dwellers of the sea also possess rigid fins that are supported by cartilaginous rods. All together the shark has five different types of fins: the paired pectoral fins, are used to lift the shark as it swims, the paired pelvic fins stabilize the shark, the one or two dorsal fins also stabilize the shark, a single anal fin provides stability in species where it is present, however not all sharks have the anal fin, and the caudal fi n which propels the shark (Lineaweaver and Backus 1970). The sharks head structure consist of lateral eyes, a ventral external nose, and a mouth that is ventrally located at the tip of the snout. Some species possess an eyelid like structure called a nictitating membrane, which helps in protecting the eye from being injured when prey are thrashing around, and a nasal barber, which are sensory projections near the nasal (Lineaweaver and Backus 1970). In the mouth, teeth are modified, enlarged placoid scales. Having numerous rows of teeth attached at their bases by connective tissue, sharks have rows of replacement teeth that are continually developed behind the outer row. As the functio... ... feeling to the slaughter of the shark species. Therefore, with positive education as an antidote to false and negative publicity the battle to save the endangered shark will be possible. In order to win the battle of losing the shark, the support of the general public will be needed to achieve this goal. Work Cited Baldridge, H.D. 1974. Shark Attack. Berkely Pub. Corp., New York. 263 Baldridge, H.D. 1988. Shark aggression against man: beginning of an understanding. 74(4):208-217 Budker, Paul. 1971. Life of Sharks. Columbia University Press. 10-18pp. Davies, D. H. 1966. About Sharks and Shark Attack. New York Hobbs, Dorman. 240-255 pp. Ellis, Richard. 1976. The book of Sharks. New York Grasset and Dunlap. 110-130 pp. Lineaweaver, T. H., and R. H. Backus. 1970. Natural History of Sharks. Philadelphia and New York. 23-40 pp. Martin, M. 1985. The shark: more threatened than threatening. Sea Frontiers. 31: 296-303. Perrine, D. 1999. Sharks and Rays of the World. Voyageur Press, Stillwater, Minnesota. 132 pp. Woums, J., and L. Demski. 1993. Reproduction and Development of Sharks, Skates, Rays and Ratfishes. Environmental Biology of Fishes. 38(1): 270. Shark Conservation Essay -- Sharks Sea Life Animals Essays Shark Conservation Abstract Arising over 350 million years ago, the shark species has been labeled as a human devourer. Now, with the increase in human population, the demand for shark meat, fins, and cartilage are at an all time high; therefore, the existence of the shark is becoming a concern (Budker 1971). Individuals are conditioned to think of sharks as a negative aspect to the environment, which is prolonging the effort to save shark species from becoming extinct. With that in mind, some private as well as national organizations have accepted the challenge of educating and informing people about the existence of the shark specie and its importance to the sea. Introduction Portrayed as the beast of the sea, the shark species is a cold blooded animal that shows great diversity in size. The largest of the sharks measure up to 13.7 m, while the smallest of the species range from 22-to-25 cm (Ellis 1976). Typically, these creatures of the sea have a fusiform body, that is composed of cartilage, which is capable of reducing drag and the amount of energy needed to swim (Ellis 1976). Their countershade coloration allows the species to blend in with both the dark depths and the light surfaces of the sea (Ellis 1976). These beautiful dwellers of the sea also possess rigid fins that are supported by cartilaginous rods. All together the shark has five different types of fins: the paired pectoral fins, are used to lift the shark as it swims, the paired pelvic fins stabilize the shark, the one or two dorsal fins also stabilize the shark, a single anal fin provides stability in species where it is present, however not all sharks have the anal fin, and the caudal fi n which propels the shark (Lineaweaver and Backus 1970). The sharks head structure consist of lateral eyes, a ventral external nose, and a mouth that is ventrally located at the tip of the snout. Some species possess an eyelid like structure called a nictitating membrane, which helps in protecting the eye from being injured when prey are thrashing around, and a nasal barber, which are sensory projections near the nasal (Lineaweaver and Backus 1970). In the mouth, teeth are modified, enlarged placoid scales. Having numerous rows of teeth attached at their bases by connective tissue, sharks have rows of replacement teeth that are continually developed behind the outer row. As the functio... ... feeling to the slaughter of the shark species. Therefore, with positive education as an antidote to false and negative publicity the battle to save the endangered shark will be possible. In order to win the battle of losing the shark, the support of the general public will be needed to achieve this goal. Work Cited Baldridge, H.D. 1974. Shark Attack. Berkely Pub. Corp., New York. 263 Baldridge, H.D. 1988. Shark aggression against man: beginning of an understanding. 74(4):208-217 Budker, Paul. 1971. Life of Sharks. Columbia University Press. 10-18pp. Davies, D. H. 1966. About Sharks and Shark Attack. New York Hobbs, Dorman. 240-255 pp. Ellis, Richard. 1976. The book of Sharks. New York Grasset and Dunlap. 110-130 pp. Lineaweaver, T. H., and R. H. Backus. 1970. Natural History of Sharks. Philadelphia and New York. 23-40 pp. Martin, M. 1985. The shark: more threatened than threatening. Sea Frontiers. 31: 296-303. Perrine, D. 1999. Sharks and Rays of the World. Voyageur Press, Stillwater, Minnesota. 132 pp. Woums, J., and L. Demski. 1993. Reproduction and Development of Sharks, Skates, Rays and Ratfishes. Environmental Biology of Fishes. 38(1): 270.

Ic to Nano

SAY IC TO NANO!!!!! A Paper On â€Å"Nano – Internal Combustion Engines† Paper Presented By, N. TONY V. KUMAR III B. TECH. IIIB. TECH. MECHANICAL ENGINEERING MECHANICAL ENGINEERING G. PULLAREDYENGG COLLEGE G. PULLAREDDYENGG COLLEGE [email  protected] com ph:9573071011 ph:9493205458 [pic] Introduction:What is nano technology? Its worth pointing out that the word nanotechnology has become very popular and is used to describe many types of research where the characteristic dimension are less than about thousand nano meter If we are to continue these trends we will have to develop a new manufacturing technology which will let us inexpensively build nano system with mole quantities that are molecular in both size and precision and are inter connected in complex patterns NANO TECHNOLOGY WILL DO THIS. What is heat engine?Heat engines work on the principle of converting chemical energy into mechanical work and evolve from external combustion engine to internal combustion engi ne. External combustion engine is the heat engine in which fuel combustion takes place external to cylinder. Due to this it is bulky and consumes lot of place. Second revolution of heat engines are ICE in which fuel combustion takes internally and consumes less place and became compact, cost effective. Of late third revolution is NANO Internal Combustion Engine. It is difficult to thread- in a needle.Imagine working with an instrument with one billionth of meter. Construction of â€Å"Nano† – A 0. 1cc Compression Ignition Engine: [pic] The Nano is a 0. 1cc (that's less than 0. 01 cuin) compression ignition engine – most frequently, if somewhat inaccurately, referred to as a â€Å"diesel†. It was designed by Richard Gordon and the plans were included as a supplement with the British Magazine Model Engineer in the early 1990's [pic] An idea of the size of the Nano is given by this picture. From backplate to drive washer is less than 1 inch.There are no exot ic materials required. The crankcase is hacked from a solid cube of aluminum 3/4†³ on a side. The piston and contra piston are cast iron. The crankshaft and liner are any old steel from the scrap box. [pic] Here is an exploded view of the engine. The odd looking thing in the foreground is a special Nano-Spanner required to tighten the back plate. It also fits the fuel nipple. The construction is extremely conventional – only the scale is unusual. [pic] Like all model IC projects, there are a few special jigs and tools required to construct the Nano.All are fully detailed in the plan, which includes step by step instructions with photos. The cutter is made from water hardening drill rod (called â€Å"silver steel† in the UK because of its appearance – it contains no silver). the teeth are formed of Dermal-type cut-off wheel. [pic] The cutter is used to form the exhaust ports in the cylinder. There are three of these, spaced at 120 degrees with sufficient spa ce between them for the angled transfer ports to slightly overlap the timing. The crown of the piston is conical to assist transfer.The contra piston has a matching concave conical depression. [pic] As mentioned previously, the crankcase is formed from a cube of aluminum. The venturi is machined separately and secured with Lok-Tite before the final reaming of the crankshaft journal. Notice the three transfer passages in the photo. These terminate in a transfer belt below the cylinder seat that matches with the cylinder transfer ports. If you look very closely, you'll also see the stuff-up that turned away part of the venturi opening. Always happens on the last operation! n [pic] There's nothing special in the crankshaft components. Another jig (not shown) is made to hold the shaft in the 3-jaw chuck, offset by half the throw for forming the crank pin. Even at these sizes, final lapping to size is no different from larger engines in terms of the amount of metal that must be LEFT for removal. Only the microscopic size makes things difficult. The prop driver knurls were formed with a thread form tool, set on edge and used as a shaper. The prop nut is anodized in the usual way. [pic]Again, apart from their size, there's nothing special about the needle valve components the needle itself was made from steel and â€Å"blued† it by a quick heat in a gas flame followed by water quenching. No big deal, but the amazing thing is the attention it draws with people who examine the engine. This costs just US$10(Rs. 440/-) only. When it was fired, it run briefly, oscillating back and forth about TDC like over compressed diesels with small mass fly wheels are won’t to do. Running! .but spring starters are the only way to start ultra small diesels – hand propping just won't work.Also, the fuel for mini diesels needs a lot of ether – as high as 50% by volume. With high ether fuel and a spring starter, the little Nano will burst into life. Richard Gor don claims it will turn 40,000 rpm – yes, that's no typo, forty thousand revolutions per minute. American engine builder Ron Colona used to demo his at model engineering shows and turning at better than 20,000 rpm. | | | |The Components Used: | | | | | |[pic]Crankcase | | | | | |[pic]Backplate | | | | | |[pic]Cylinder and Head | | | | | |[pic]Venturi and Needle Valve Assembly | | | | | |[pic]Conrods and Crankshafts | | | | | |[pic]Piston and Contra-Piston | | | | | |[pic]Final Assembly and Test Report | | | | Crankcase and Cylinder rough-out: The crankcase starts off as a chunk of aluminum bar of about 1-1/2†³ diameter, sawn to length, plus a little bit. The first step is to finish turn the front section with a 1/4†³ radius where the journal blends into the body. The photo shows the roughing out process. Note that the tool is raked back sharply while â€Å"hoggin' great cuts† are made so that if it digs in, the cut will be forced shallower, not deeper as it w ould be if the tool were set raked forward like a regular knife tool.Next we need to remove all the excess aluminum that does not look like a crankcase. This can easily be done with a band saw, or less easily done with a hacksaw! In either case, marking out is simplified by preparing a full size profile on paper, centered in a circle the same size as the bar stock. Mine was done from the CAD drawings, but pencil and compass could achieve the same result with about the same effort. The paper template has a hole cut roughly in the middle to accommodate the journal and the blended radius where it meets the front face. It is attached to the face with a standard glue stick. If you're careful, this will last long enough to complete the butchery. Saw to within about 1/32†³ (1mm) of the outline.Take care because heat buildup will melt the glue. The next photo shows the four basic stages in crankcase manufacture: [pic]Bar stock blank [pic]Journal turned and sawing template glued in plac e [pic]Crankcase rough sawn to within 1mm of the template outline [pic]The finished crankcase [pic] Backplate: The back plate is simple turning with only some aspects of work holding posing any problems. In this first shot, the back plate profile has been turned on a piece of bar stock with the interior face oriented towards the tailstock. This means we will be screw cutting towards the shoulder formed by the back plate rim, so a thin (0. 20†³) run out groove is first cut at the thread/rim junction to the depth of the thread form. This also assures the back plate will form a tight seal against the rear of the crankcase. The thread cutting tool is a piece of 1/4†³ diameter HSS steel, ground to a 60 degree point with seven degrees of side rake, mounted in a tracting tool holder. This magnificent gadget takes a while to make but is absolutely invaluable to thread cutting. The little ball lever actuates a spring loaded, over center cam – just requiring a flick to retrac t the tool bit by about 3/16†³. This allows the saddle to be repositioned for the next cutting pass without having to twiddle dials and remember settings.The cylinder blank has now been replaced in the 3 jaw chuck with the top of flange against the jaws and some thin aluminum shim (beer can material) around the outside to protect the finish and thread. The bore will be drilled so as to leave 8 to 10 thou to be removed by the reamer. It is pilot drilled first. I'm told its good practice to select a pilot size no grater than half the next drilling size to prevent the next size wandering. Here we see the reamer being floated into the bore using the tailstock (larger hand reamers will have a dimple in the end which assists this operation. For this operation, the headstock is turned by hand. Keep up plenty of suds and never rotate the chuck backwards. The reamer is prevented from rotating by resting the tap handle on the compound slide.A piece of shim material protects the slide fro m damage by the handle. The transfer ports of the weaver are unusual. They comprise 5 vertical channels, spaced equidistantly around the forward 180 degrees of the cylinder. They terminate in a â€Å"transfer belt† below the exhaust ports. This arrangement avoids the induction port at the cylinder rear. These ports cannot be cut before reaming (or boring) as their presence would make it impossible to cut the bore accurately. This flash-failure shot shows how they are drilled. A short aluminum (or brass) plug is turned to be an interference fit up the bore. The holes are then drilled at the intersection of the cylinder and plug.The cylinder wall will be quite thin adjacent the transfer passages, but by using a slightly softer material for the plug, the drill will incline towards the softer material, preventing any danger or a ruined part. Venturi and Needle Valve Assembly: In the previous section, the cylinder had progressed to a nearly finished state, still requiring internal lapping. Lapping should always be the last operation on a cylinder of this type. This means the boss for attaching the side port venturi must be fitted before lapping can be done. In this session, the boss is made and the associated parts for the venturi and needle valve. The boss will be soft soldered to the cylinder (diesels don't get hot enough to melt soft solder). â€Å". older does not make the joint, it only keeps the air out† and schooled me to make a good fit of parts to be soldered. The boss will butt to the cylinder, which has an outside diameter of 0. 500†³. So, a good fit can be achieved by profiling the boss with a 1/2†³ end mill. In this photo, we see the boss blank (enough for four) which has been finished outside, drilled ready for tapping and transferred still in the 3 jaw chuck to the mill for end profiling. Applications: Nano IC engine has various applications ranging from race cars to space crafts. ? In race cars this IC Nano Engine was used. T he engine was fully fabricated, that is, no castings were employed. | | | | | | | | | | | | | |[pic] | |It can be controlled in aero planes/satellites/space ships etc. , the timing of in let and exhaust valves. | |According to NASA reports they are experimenting about the use of nano engine in nano & pico satellites. | |In case of a mine tragedy where harmful gases are emitted ,these nano IC engines can be employed as powerful blowers to blow out these gases is a | |less time saving the lives of trapped miners .We require at least 5-6 blowers to blow these gases where as two nano IC engines could do the tick in| |less time. | |Agriculture pumps sets. | |Every field of industry. | |Prospects: | |The problem | |Every day people are spending more and more money because of rising gas prices. People all over the world are trying to find a solution—even | |visiting websites to locate the nearest and cheapest gas, all the while losing time and mileage just to reach [these] refueling stations. Many have| |been giving up favorite hobbies and changing life plans because of the need to reallocate their funds for gas.For those of us who must drive to | |work or school, it seems we have little choice but to continue paying more. Now, there is a way to fight back against these constant increases in | |gas prices—and to fight pollution and protect the environment in the process. | | | |The solution | |Use the most advanced technology available to improve fuel economy, prolong the engine life, reduce harmful emissions and protect the environment. | |The number one product for fuel economy, power and pollution control is now available. |Introducing our two unique nanotechnology products: | |F2-21 NanoLube Engine Oil Treatment, and | |F2-21 NanoRon Gas & Diesel Fuel Enhancer. | |With nanotechnology, fuel transforms at the nano-level to achieve a more complete combustion, resulting in increased fuel economy, more driving | |power, and fewer pollutive emissions. | | Use either product or both to get multiple benefits: | |  Ã‚  Ã‚   –   Adds great power to your engine. NanoLube eases heavy driving loads and increases   | |  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚      Driving  pleasure with a faster, smoother, and quieter ride. |  Ã‚  Ã‚   –   Boosts miles per gallon (analogous to buying Premium Gas or boosting your octane number), | |  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚      While saving you money and conserving energy. | |  Ã‚  Ã‚   –   Prolongs engine life by cleaning your combustion chamber and piston ring deposits, | |  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚      Extending engine life and cutting equipment downtime. | |  Ã‚  Ã‚   –   Protects the environment by reducing harmful emissions and fighting global warming. | | | | | |[pic] | | | Summing upWith the application of Nano in every sphere of life the ‘big’ may not find its place in engineering dictionary in future. If we are to continue these trends we will have to develop a new manufacturi ng technology, which will let us inexpensively build nano system with mole quantities that are molecular in both size and precision and are, inter connected in complex patterns NANO TECHNOLOGY WILL DO THIS. NANO technology with all its challenges and opportunities is an avoidable part of our future. It can be rightly said that nano technology slowly and steadily assuring in the next Industrial Revolution. Bibliography †¢ www. Bbc. co. uk †¢ [email  protected] com †¢ www. google. co. in

Decision Making and Reasoning Essay

There are different types of decisions that we must make as well. From simple choices when planning for a vacation or making more life changing choices that require a detailed, logical analysis concerning what to do. Questions about strategy use have been treated in several different lines of decision-making. Largely, a distinction arises in terms of when and why deliberative processing best describes decision-making behavior. Under novel decision-making conditions, there is no prior experience to guide the decision-making process. The process involves selecting the appropriate strategy. Under repetitive successful decision-making conditions, there is a long history of experience. Some decisions become automatic in the sense that they require no deliberation. In this process, we address the issue of how decision processes transit from more controlled or deliberative strategies, to simple decision rules, and finally to automatic or routine strategies. What one sees as rational behavior in many of the social situations that have been studied is likely to depend on whether one conceives of rationality as enlightened self-interest in a fairly narrow sense, or one factors in the roles of such variables as self-image and conscience, or one allows for the possibility that a rational person might take a genuine interest in the welfare of other people, independently of his or her own. In other words, what is perceived as a dilemma from one perspective may not be a dilemma as perceived from another; a decision problem that is very difficult when assessed relative to one set of values may be very easy when assessed relative to another set. Dilemmas are difficult decision problems, necessitating, as they often do, choices between equally unsatisfactory (or in some cases equally attractive) options. Some social dilemmas pit self-interest against the common good. What constitutes rational behavior in dealing with dilemmas has been a question of interest to many theorists and students of human reasoning. Certain prototypical situations—notably various versions of the prisoner’s dilemma have been intensively studied with the hope of gaining insights into the determinants of competitive and cooperative behavior. However, along the way, we may use simple rules to decide when and where to stop and which specific routes to take, depending on incidental factors such as traffic. It is important to understand how these various decision domains are differently perceived and processed. (Betsch et al, 2004, p1) Strategies That Guide Human Decision Making A strategy is used to refer to processes which are relatively slow, goal-directed, systematic, and under explicit conscious control. However, it is also argued that to reason deductively rather than inductively does require a conscious effort at deduction and only occurs in response to specific instructions. Thus deduction is seen as a strategy. An account of strategic deductive reasoning with the mental models framework is preferred. (D’Ydewalle et al, 2000, p1) The strategic phases of decision making are the generation phase, the evaluation phase, and the learning phase. In a very rough sense, these phases correspond to the periods before, during, and after one makes a decision, respectively. Hence, they can be viewed as three successive points in time, but there is a great deal of recursion that can occur between phases. (Klein et al, 2001, p31) The tendency to implement appropriate behaviors strategies is apparent by the number of techniques available. For example, vigilant problem solving found that most executives report that they engage in one of a number of simplistic strategies for arriving at a solution. These simplistic strategies of simple decision rules are grouped them into cognitive categories. The cognitive decision rules: 1. Unreflectively using a standard operating procedure, 2. Accepting the first alternative that comes to mind that is good enough to meet the minimal requirements (satisfying), 3. Searching ones mind for a well-known analogy that turns out to be inappropriate (analogizing), 4. Consolidating the choice discovered through rules (1) to (3) and bolstering it in one’s mind by focusing mainly on the positive features of the choice, 5. Saving time and effort by getting someone who has looked into the issues to provide a brief description of what one should do and why (the nutshell briefing rule). (Byrnes, 1998, p21) For example in a case study format, Suppose that a student already possesses some automatic but dysfunctional strategies for making the decisions the instructor seeks to have make well. Then, before the training effort can begin in earnest, those â€Å"bad habits† have to be eliminated. This will be a prodigious task because, by their nature, the already established strategies will initiate themselves effortlessly, uncontrollably, and beyond the trainee’s consciousness. Because decision making is such a fundamental human activity, which each of us has practiced day-in and day-out all our lives, perhaps the majority of our decision strategies are automated. This means that it is folly to think that it is even possible to fundamentally change a person’s basic decision-making dispositions. (Klein et al, 2001, p25) Managerial leadership is generally considered a major factor in organizational behavior because of its putative effect on individuals, groups, and organizational outcomes. Some regard leadership as a special case of social influence. But progress has been very slow in understanding why leaders exert influence in certain situations while not in others. Research has not produced particularly robust and reliable findings in this regard.

Election of 2000 essays

Election of 2000 essays Bill Clinton, as a president was a major paradox in and of himself. People loved him, yet they hated him. Americans, as a whole loved the prosperity, and capitalist growth that was brought by Clintons years in the Oval Office. They loved the stocks ownership, the money, the way our country was flourishing. Clinton was very good at what he did-soothing lines drawn between parties, even going so far as to sign a Republican-sponsored welfare bill. He moved the country from right to left, and back again. Clinton was a talented politician, yet he missed the opportunity to be an exceptional president. The biggest paradox may be Clinton becoming the focal point for the revival of ideological politics; people wanted the government to be a friend, not an enemy, whilst many people saw Clinton as the flailed president. Clinton did a lot of good, but he also made many mistakes, that made many people see him as a failed president. For every American that liked Clinton, one didnt. Many of those who didnt see eye-to-eye with him were the uneducated, rural white males. Moreover, this then, sets the stage for the 2000 election. Clintons vice president; Al Gore had the best shot at winning the democratic presidential nomination simply for being vice-president. Whatever the reason, being the vice president seems to be one of the single most advantages when running for president. Not only did Gore have connections with powerful democrats; he had Clinton backing him. Gore was in the publics eye as vice-president, and people generally agreed that he had been an excellent vice president. Gore was also favored by democrats at a high rate of 73% of the American public. Just as Gore became the Democratic favorite, Bush soon became the Republican favorite, largely due to a famous name, a remarkable network of sup ...

Free Essays on Making Friends Isnt Easy

The process of making a friend is a very unique one. It depends on that person’s age, gender, and personality. Every individual is different and how they make friends differs just as much. The way I make friends depends heavily on my personality. As a timid person, I tend to first meet potential friends through family and other people. After the initial meeting, I interact with them to see what type of person they are and whether or not I think our personalities are compatible and if I think they would make a good friend. Before I can take a look at the sometimes mysterious process of becoming friends with someone, I have to reveal some personal information. I am a great believer in personality typing. I am a very introverted person. This does not mean I am anti-social, it merely means that new and non-routine interaction with others is unlikely. Initiating the process of making a new friend is a very difficult process. This is where the concept of forced interaction comes into play. By forced interaction, I mean a situation in which another person and I are placed in an environment where we have no choice but to interact with each other such as at school in class and through family. It is impossible to be completely separate from other students in a class. I met all my friends in school, it was a place where I spent most of my time. It would be extremely rude to not interact with someone that your friend or family considers a friend. That is the way that I met a very close friend of mine and one who I will use as an example of my friend-making process throughout this essay. Her name is Sheree and I originally met her through another my god sister, Erica. We were all attending the same high school, so it was just like Erica to try to have us all become friends. But I was not friends with Sheree when I first met her. I had to figure out what type of person she was before we could become friends. Evaluation ha... Free Essays on Making Friends Isn't Easy Free Essays on Making Friends Isn't Easy The process of making a friend is a very unique one. It depends on that person’s age, gender, and personality. Every individual is different and how they make friends differs just as much. The way I make friends depends heavily on my personality. As a timid person, I tend to first meet potential friends through family and other people. After the initial meeting, I interact with them to see what type of person they are and whether or not I think our personalities are compatible and if I think they would make a good friend. Before I can take a look at the sometimes mysterious process of becoming friends with someone, I have to reveal some personal information. I am a great believer in personality typing. I am a very introverted person. This does not mean I am anti-social, it merely means that new and non-routine interaction with others is unlikely. Initiating the process of making a new friend is a very difficult process. This is where the concept of forced interaction comes into play. By forced interaction, I mean a situation in which another person and I are placed in an environment where we have no choice but to interact with each other such as at school in class and through family. It is impossible to be completely separate from other students in a class. I met all my friends in school, it was a place where I spent most of my time. It would be extremely rude to not interact with someone that your friend or family considers a friend. That is the way that I met a very close friend of mine and one who I will use as an example of my friend-making process throughout this essay. Her name is Sheree and I originally met her through another my god sister, Erica. We were all attending the same high school, so it was just like Erica to try to have us all become friends. But I was not friends with Sheree when I first met her. I had to figure out what type of person she was before we could become friends. Evaluation ha...